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Alaska Department of Education & Early Development

FORMULATING MODELS

Models which aid in an understanding of the social studies can include:

• physical models
  • maps and globes
  • 3-D models of landscapes, buildings, and towns
  • active models depicting the physical systems such as the earth's rotation and revolution, the hydrologic cycle, volcanoes or earthquakes

• statistical
  • graphs, such as climographs and population pyramids
  • demographic models
  • the flow of imports, exports, and goods
  • choropleth maps
  • human graphs
• conceptual or mental

• analogies from various time periods
• metaphors from literature and poetry
• graphic organizers, such as mental maps

• theoretical
  • sets of rules or laws, such as the U.N. Declaration on Human Rights
  • governmental systems

INTERVIEWS/SURVEYS/POLLS

INTERVIEWS

Interviewing allows for first-hand data collection. Students in first grade can practice interviewing skills by asking their classmates questions about their birthdays. Students ask questions and then use data collected from the interviewee to create a greeting for the birthday child. The teacher records the data in a word bank to share with the child's family.

Another example of interviewing involves middle school students interviewing someone about their work in a profession they would like to enter about their work. This type of interviewing is helpful as students begin to make decisions about where to live, work, travel, and seek new opportunities (Geography Standard 2).

SURVEY

Technology can aid in conducting surveys beyond the boundaries of the local area. Students in Cold Bay used the following survey to collect data about cost of living in communities in their AT&T learning circle.

INDIVIDUAL SCHOOL/COMMUNITY DATA TALLY SHEET

SCHOOL NAME:______________________

LOCATION:_________________________

For each of the items listed below, please answer the questions below the list.

	A	B	C	D
Music Compact Disc
Disposable Diapers
Daily Newspaper
Roses
Flour, 5 lb/2 kg
Fresh Eggs
Coffee 2 lb/1 kg
Fresh Salmon 2 lb/1 kg
Carbonated Beverage 1 liter (e.g. coke)
Electricity per KWH

Questions:

A. Can you buy this item in your community?

B. How much does it cost (in U.S. dollars)?

C. What does it cost before any taxes (local, provisional, or national) are assessed?

D. From where does the item come (what country or region of your country)?

Source: Clawson, Linn. The Cost of Living: The Effect of Geography on Living Costs. 1994.

POLLS

Polls can be used to collect data within the community and provide ways, as in this example, for students to conduct experimental inquiry.

Conduct a poll in your group about who should win the election for President of the United States. Based on the findings from your group, make a prediction about how people in the community feel about the presidency. Then conduct interviews in the community about who should win. Report on the selection of your group and the findings based on the interviews from the community. Make sure you relate the findings from the community with your original prediction.

Source: Marzano, et al, 1992.

ORAL HISTORY

Dorothy Orbison of Sitka has worked extensively with oral history in the classroom. She outlines a process for working with students who are interviewing members of the World War II generation. (The following is reproduced with the permission of Dorothy Orbison.)

General Background Knowledge

1. Inventory prior knowledge about community history (what do we already know).
2. Narrow focus to "living history" (within the life span of a living person) and class generates initial timeline.
3. Small groups browse reference materials and guest speakers present overview of recent community history.
4. Class revises timeline.
5. Individuals, then small groups, and finally the whole class generates brainstormed list of potential topics for the oral history interviews and resulting publication.
6. Students vote for a topic and then brainstorm sources of information about this topic (print, photo, video, and especially names of people in the community who could help us out).

Focus Background Preparation

1. Repeat the process with narrower focus. Inventory prior knowledge.
2. Access print and video resources to bolster background knowledge and invite a few guest speakers to share more specific information about the selected topic.
3. Individuals, then small groups, and finally the whole class generates brainstormed list of general interview questions.
4. Use historical photos to elicit a broader range of questions.
5. Form interview teams. Pair teams with an elder. Teams learn what they can about their elder in advance, often by asking their parents and/or teachers. Teams compile lists of interview questions.

Interview and Writing Process

1. First visit with elders. Hold off on the hard-core interrogation and focus on getting acquainted and building trust. Direct students to share information about themselves with elders.
2. Teams modify and personalize lists of questions, adapting them to their particular elder.
3. The second visit is the focused interview. Teams share questioning and note taking duties and may tape record only if elder agrees.
4. Teams word process first drafts, write thank you notes, and write extension questions based on their first drafts.
5. The third visit if for students to read the first draft to their elder, seeking corrections and expansion of information.
6. Teams revise first drafts and write thank you notes.
7. The fourth visit if for students to share the second draft with their elder, seeking last-chance corrections of information and to select photos to include in the book.
8. Teams finalize their "perfect draft", write scripts, and practice brief speeches introducing, honoring, and thanking their elder.
9. All students and elders gather for refreshments, speeches, and gift-giving (autographed copies of their "perfect draft" are presented to each elder.
10. Student layout editors import text of interviews into computer publishing program, lay out the book, and send to printers with photos.

RESEARCH

Research in the social studies can take a variety of forms, as illustrated by the examples that follow. Problem-solving is integral to research and conclusions should be directly related back to an original hypothesis.

Students work in pairs over a one-week period. They present their data in a chart and summarize their conclusions in a written report. Geographers tell us that the earth has more water than land. Conduct your own experiment using a globe to determine how much of the earth is water and how much is land. First, make a guess by simply looking at the globe. Then, spin the globe and have your partner point to a spot on the globe without looking. Did you point to water or land. Keep doing this and record your results in a chart. How were your results converted to fractions? Do your results support the estimate? Explain.

Students work in cooperative groups for three to four weeks, depending on accessibility of museums, libraries, etc.

Source: Marzano, et al, 1992.

ROLE-PLAY

"Role-play allows students the opportunity to portray real-world situations. This requires students to use reasoning and problem-solving to deal with the reality of the experience as it unfolds." (Kentucky Frameworks) An example of role-playing is provided in the vignette on page ??? describing "The Last Wild Place on Planet Earth." Role-playing can also be designed around current, real-world leaders and issues. For example, students might role-play the G-7 leaders meeting at a summit to discuss economic issues or Native, governmental, business, environmental, and community leaders meeting to decide the fate of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.

SIMULATIONS

Mock trials are an especially effective type of simulation for the social studies, specifically in relation to Government/Citizenship Standard 2: All Alaska students will understand the constitutional foundations of the American political system and the democratic ideals of our nation and its Key Element 8: understand the place of law in the American political system. Topics can originate from either historical, citizenship, or geographic situations. For example:

• historical figures to be put on trial or historical trials to be reenacted might include Columbus, John Brown, Susan B. Anthony.
• citizenship and law issues arise from trials centered on such basics as theft and shoplifting.
• geographic dilemmas centered on environmental concerns can generate lively mock trials.

Mock trials can become an assessment centerpiece for a social studies program. This technique is utilized at Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka where Don Surgeon guides students through a series of mock trials over the four years of high school. Students work closely with the magistrate and with local lawyers when preparing their cases.

In the ninth grade, students read the novel To Kill A Mockingbird and use the actual trial questions and closing arguments from the book as a the basis for a mock trial. Students then write and rewrite questions, opening, and closing arguments. The trial is also moved in time and location to current year and local community in order to add to the dilemma. Students are also able to access prior years' mock trials and to observe other mock trials (senior trial discussed below) before putting on this mock trial.

In the eleventh grade, students use the national competition mock trial. Topics in recent years have included a drug case involving a car search, drunk driving, battered women's syndrome, and educational malpractice.

In the twelfth grade, students create their own mock trial, from deciding the topic to writing all questions, opening, and closing statements, and generating evidence. The trials designed by the students have centered around abortion (with the male's role in the decision and paternity being central to the case), date rape, fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects, and police brutality, among others.

DESIGNING PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS AND SCORING RUBRICS

Components of performance assessments include the (1) performance task, (2) a response format, and (3) a scoring system.

• A performance task should be an invitation to the student or group of students to employ higher level thinking skills in order to solve a problem, make and support a decision, or conduct an inquiry.
• The response format provides a mechanism for students to record and summarize findings, justify their answers, and respond to prompts for more specific information. In a truly authentic performance assessment, students may use a variety of formats for recording, summarizing, and reporting their answers.
• A scoring system provides a mechanism for analyzing the content of the student's response as well as the reasonableness of procedures or evidence. Scoring systems also provide useful information for the student, teacher, parent, and school system. Scoring systems should provide reliable scores and be quick and easy to use.

Steps in Developing Performance Assessments

In an ideal setting, performance assessments can be developed by a development team of teachers, subject matter educators, subject matter professors, and assessment specialists (Shavelson, 1994); however, in the school setting, teachers may work alone or on grade level or interdisciplinary teams to develop performance assessments. In any case, what follows are some suggested steps for developing performance assessments. These are adapted from work by the Connecticut Department of Education.

• Start with a concept
  • from the state standards or district curriculum
  • from life
  • from literature
  • from a newspaper, magazine, trade journal, almanac, catalog
  • from a conversation
  • from a random thought
  • from a divine inspiration
  • from a textbook or supplementary instructional materials
• Test the idea
  • Does it meet the criteria for performance tasks?
  • Is it important in your locale?
  • Does it have a context your students will understand?
• Begin converting the idea
  • Define your objectives.
    • Where does it fit in the curriculum?
    • Why is this (lesson, unit) being taught to kids?
    • What can it tell you about students?
    • What will students have to know and be able to do?
  • Draft a plan.
    • Describe the task.
    • State purpose and objectives.
    • Write directions for students.
    • Include nondirective questions that might nudge students to find needed strategies.
    • Furnish information to the student and parent on evaluation criteria and/or have students develop their own assessment criteria (at the primary level, this should be in pictorial format)
• Consider response formats
  • Written exercises or reports
  • Oral reports or performances
  • Group discussions and activities
  • Bulletin board displays
• Develop teacher notes
  • Where the task fits into the curriculum
  • What students need to know ahead of time
  • What materials and equipment are needed
  • What problems may arise
  • What amount and kind of guidance a teacher should or should not provide and its relationship to rating
• Draft an assessment approach
  • Decide on a holistic approach with anecdotal reports, or an analytic point system.
  • Look for assessment of processes, products, or both.
  • Consider attitudes and attributes (perceptions) you hope to see, such as group cooperation, persistence, and resourcefulness.
  • Identify what is most important to assess and whether "scores" should be weighted accordingly.
  • Define levels of performance.
  • Be prepared to make changes or adjustments after looking at student work. It may surprise you!

• Try out the task
  • Have one or more colleagues review and critique. Then revise.
  • Try out the task with 1 or 2 students. Then revise.
  • Administer the task in a few classrooms.
    • Get feedback from students.
    • Take detailed notes on what you see and what students say.
  • Decide on appropriate changes or new tasks.
• Revise where necessary
  • The task itself
  • The teacher notes
  • The assessment system

Source: Stenmark, 1991.

One strong recommendation that comes from classroom educator who has worked with assessment over a period of several years is to pace yourself when developing new assessments. Teachers should remember that translating all assessment to alternative means does not mean that a whole year's worth of alternative assessments are not done at once, or even during the course of one year. Designing quality assessment pieces is not quick and easy. Develop one idea, become comfortable with it, and then move on. What this means is that, in reality, teachers should plan on designing an assessment or assessments for one unit each year. This is especially true for when working with a team of teachers and allowing time for thoughtful discussion during all phases from design, to implementation, to piloting, and to revision.

In addition to a pilot test with small groups of students and with an entire class, good performance task can be evaluated according to the following criteria.

The Shavelson group suggests seven-step process for developing a rubric:

1. develop a conceptual framework for a rubric

2. administer an assessment to the students

3. categorize their responses into levels

4. characterize each level with a description of performance and examples

5. reach consensus for scoring standards

6. train a large team of raters

7. score students' assessments

There are many model rubrics in the assessment literature, and these can be used as the rubric development process begins and the conceptual framework is discussed.

A very generalized rubric which can be applied to any task distinguishes among three levels of performance.

¨ Demonstrated Competence

¨ Exemplary

¨ Competent

¨ Satisfactory Response

¨ Minor flaws but satisfactory

¨ Serious flaws but satisfactory

¨ Inadequate response

¨ Begins but fails to complete problem

¨ Unable to begin effectively

¨ No attempt

A more specific rubric may be devised for generalized use, such as for oral presentations, problem-solving, and cooperative group work, or for specialized use with a specific task or unit. An example of a generalized rubric needed in the social studies is one assessing decision-making, which can be defined as selecting among apparently equal alternatives (Marzano, 1992) and the following student questions and subcompetencies.

These three scenarios all involve decision-making and can be assessed using the generalized rubric that follows.

This generalized rubric can be turned into a scoring rubric, more readily useable in the classroom setting, by focusing on the key words from the generalized rubric. The rater, be they a teacher or invited outside rater, can use a checkoff system or a highlighting system as they assess a student's performance on a decision-making task.